(Chapter – 1) Theory of Machines and Machine Design: – Concept of simple machine, Four bar linkage and link motion, Flywheels and fluctuation of energy, Power transmission by belts- V- belt and Flat belts, Clutches- Plate and Conical clutch, Gears- Types of Gears, gear profile and gear ratio calculation, Governors- Principles and classification , Riveted joint, Cams, Bearings, Friction in collars and pivots.
Simple Machine – Basic Concept
- Machine: ऐसी व्यवस्था जो input energy को उपयोगी mechanical work में बदलती/प्रेषित करती है।
- Simple machine: कम parts वाली मशीन जो force को multiply या direction बदलती है।
- मुख्य simple machines: Lever, Pulley, Wheel & Axle, Inclined Plane, Wedge, Screw.
- Mechanical Advantage (MA) = Load / Effort
- Velocity Ratio (VR) = Distance moved by effort / Distance moved by load
- Efficiency (\( \eta \)) = MA / VR × 100%
- Ideal machine में MA = VR और efficiency = 100%.
Four-Bar Linkage
- चार rigid links का closed kinematic chain.
- एक link fixed होता है → four-bar mechanism.
- चार links: Frame, Crank, Coupler, Rocker.
- Crank: पूर्ण rotation करता है।
- Rocker: oscillatory/angular motion करता है।
- Coupler: crank और rocker को जोड़ता है।
- Grashof criterion: \( s + l \leq p + q \) → कम-से-कम एक link पूर्ण rotation कर सकता है।
- Double-crank (drag-link): shortest link fixed.
- Crank-rocker: shortest link के adjacent link को fixed करने पर।
- Double-rocker: shortest link के opposite link को fixed करने पर।
Link Motion
- Link: mechanism का rigid/relative-motion member.
- Kinematic pair: दो links के बीच constrained relative motion.
- Lower pair: surface contact — turning, sliding, screw आदि।
- Higher pair: point/line contact — gear, cam आदि।
- Mechanism: constrained motion देने वाली kinematic chain.
- Machine: mechanism(s) का ऐसा combination जो useful work करता है।
Flywheel & Fluctuation of Energy
- Flywheel: cyclically varying torque के कारण अतिरिक्त energy store और release करता है।
- मुख्य उद्देश्य: speed fluctuation कम करना।
- Flywheel mean speed को नियंत्रित नहीं करता।
- Stored kinetic energy: \( E = \frac{1}{2}I\omega^2 \)
- Maximum fluctuation of energy: \( \Delta E = E_{max} – E_{min} \)
- Coefficient of fluctuation of speed: \( C_s = \frac{\omega_{max} – \omega_{min}}{\omega_{mean}} \)
- Flywheel: cycle के अंदर energy fluctuation control करता है।
- Governor: load बदलने पर mean speed control करता है।
Power Transmission by Belts
- Belts का उपयोग दूर स्थित parallel shafts के बीच power transmission में होता है।
- मुख्य प्रकार: Flat belt, V-belt.
- Power transmitted: \( P = (T_1 – T_2)v \)
- \( T_1 \) = tight-side tension; \( T_2 \) = slack-side tension.
- Velocity ratio: \( N_1 D_1 \approx N_2 D_2 \) (slip neglected)
| Flat Belt | V-Belt |
|---|---|
| Flat rectangular section | Trapezoidal section |
| Long-distance transmission | Short/medium-distance transmission |
| Lower grip | Higher grip due to wedge action |
| Suitable for higher peripheral speed | Compact drive |
| Simple construction | Runs in V-groove pulley |
- V-belt में wedge action friction बढ़ाता है।
- Open belt drive में shafts की rotation same direction होती है।
- Crossed belt drive में rotation opposite direction होती है।
- Belt slip और creep से velocity ratio प्रभावित होता है।
Clutches
- Clutch: driving और driven shafts को smoothly engage/disengage करने वाला device.
- मुख्य प्रकार: Plate clutch, Cone clutch, Multi-plate clutch, Centrifugal clutch.
- Clutch में friction के कारण torque transmit होता है।
Plate Clutch
- एक या अधिक friction plates का उपयोग।
- Single-plate clutch: सामान्य automotive applications में common.
- Torque capacity depends on friction coefficient, axial force, mean radius और number of friction surfaces.
- Uniform pressure: \( T = \frac{n\mu\pi W(R_o^3 – R_i^3)}{3(R_o^2 – R_i^2)} \)
- Uniform wear: \( T = \frac{n\mu W(R_o + R_i)}{2} \)
- यहाँ \( n \) = friction surfaces, \( \mu \) = coefficient of friction, \( W \) = axial force.
Conical Clutch
- Friction surfaces conical होती हैं।
- Small axial force से relatively high torque transmission possible.
- Torque: \( T = \frac{\mu W R_m n}{\sin\alpha} \) (idealized relation; convention/application के अनुसार form बदल सकता है)।
- \( \alpha \) = semi-cone angle.
- बहुत छोटा cone angle होने पर self-locking tendency बढ़ सकती है।
| Plate Clutch | Conical Clutch |
|---|---|
| Flat friction surfaces | Conical friction surfaces |
| Higher axial force may be required | Lower axial force for same torque under suitable geometry |
| Automobiles में widely used | Special applications |
Gears
- Gear: toothed element जो positive power transmission करता है।
- Gear drive में slip नहीं होता।
- Gear ratio: \( N_1/N_2 = T_2/T_1 = d_2/d_1 \)
- \( N \) = speed, \( T \) = number of teeth, \( d \) = pitch diameter.
- Module: \( m = d/T \)
- Circular pitch: \( p = \pi m \)
- Angular velocity ratio: \( \omega_1/\omega_2 = T_2/T_1 \)
| Gear | Application / Feature |
|---|---|
| Spur | Parallel shafts; straight teeth |
| Helical | Parallel/inclined shafts; smooth & quiet |
| Bevel | Intersecting shafts |
| Worm & Worm Wheel | Non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts; high reduction |
| Rack & Pinion | Rotary ↔ linear motion |
| Internal Gear | Teeth on inside of gear |
Gear Profile
- Common tooth profile: Involute profile.
- Involute is generated by unwinding a taut string from a base circle.
- Law of gearing: common normal at point of contact must always pass through a fixed pitch point.
- Important terms: pitch circle, base circle, addendum, dedendum, clearance, backlash, pressure angle.
- Pressure angle: angle between common normal and common tangent at pitch point.
- Standard involute pressure angles commonly include 20°.
- Interference: undesirable contact outside the proper involute portion.
Governors
- Governor: engine की mean speed को load परिवर्तन के अनुसार automatically regulate करता है।
- Governor fuel/working-fluid supply को control करता है।
- मुख्य principle: centrifugal force में परिवर्तन।
| Governor | Principle / Feature |
|---|---|
| Watt | Gravity-controlled centrifugal governor |
| Porter | Watt governor + central load |
| Proell | Modified Porter type |
| Hartnell | Spring-controlled governor |
- Governor height (Watt): \( h \approx \frac{895}{N^2} \) metres.
- \( N \) = rpm.
- Sensitiveness: speed variation के प्रति governor की response measure.
- Stability: increasing radius के साथ equilibrium speed बढ़े।
- Isochronism: सभी radii पर same equilibrium speed.
- Hunting: governor speed का continuous oscillation.
Riveted Joints
- Riveting एक permanent joining process है।
- Applications: boilers, tanks, structural plates आदि; modern pressure vessels में welding ने काफी जगह ली है।
- Types: Lap joint और Butt joint.
- Riveting arrangements: single-row, double-row, chain, zig-zag.
| Failure | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Tearing of plate | Plate rivet holes के बीच tear होती है |
| Shearing of rivet | Rivet shear होकर fail होता है |
| Crushing | Plate/rivet bearing surface crush होती है |
| Edge failure | Rivet hole और plate edge के बीच failure |
- Pitch: adjacent rivets के centres के बीच distance.
- Margin: rivet centre से nearest plate edge तक distance.
- Efficiency: joint strength / solid plate strength × 100.
- Design में tearing, shearing और crushing strengths में से critical value check की जाती है।
Cams & Followers
- Cam: specially shaped rotating/oscillating element जो follower को prescribed motion देता है।
- Cam-follower एक higher pair है।
- Follower motion को displacement-time या displacement-angle diagram से represent किया जाता है।
| Cam | Follower |
|---|---|
| Radial/plate cam | Knife-edge |
| Cylindrical cam | Roller follower |
| Wedge cam | Flat-faced follower |
| Oscillating cam | Spherical-faced follower |
- Follower motion: uniform velocity, SHM, uniform acceleration-retardation, cycloidal.
- Knife-edge follower में wear अधिक हो सकता है।
- Roller follower में friction/wear कम होता है।
- Pressure angle: follower motion direction और common normal के बीच angle.
- Pressure angle बहुत अधिक होने पर side thrust बढ़ता है।
Bearings
- Bearing: rotating shaft को support करता है और friction/wear कम करता है।
| Type | Examples / Feature |
|---|---|
| Sliding/Journal bearing | Sliding contact |
| Ball bearing | Point contact; low friction |
| Roller bearing | Line contact; high radial load capacity |
| Thrust bearing | Axial load |
- Ball bearing: balls द्वारा load transfer.
- Roller bearing: cylindrical/tapered/spherical rollers.
- Radial bearing: radial load के लिए।
- Thrust bearing: axial load के लिए।
- Bearing selection में load, speed, life, lubrication, temperature महत्वपूर्ण हैं।
Friction in Collars & Pivots
- Collar: shaft का enlarged portion जो axial load carry करता है।
- Pivot: shaft का end support जो axial load लेता है।
- Collar/pivot friction मुख्यतः axial load और frictional contact के कारण होता है।
Uniform Pressure Theory
- Pressure contact area पर constant माना जाता है।
- Annular collar के लिए mean radius:
- \( R_m = \frac{2(R_o^3 – R_i^3)}{3(R_o^2 – R_i^2)} \)
- Friction torque: \( T = \mu W R_m \)
Uniform Wear Theory
- Wear condition: \( pR = \) constant
- इसलिए maximum pressure inner radius पर होता है।
- Mean radius: \( R_m = \frac{R_o + R_i}{2} \)
- Friction torque: \( T = \mu W R_m \)
⚡ Quick Formula Revision
| Topic | Formula |
|---|---|
| Mechanical Advantage | \( MA = \frac{\text{Load}}{\text{Effort}} \) |
| Efficiency | \( \eta = \frac{MA}{VR} \times 100\% \) |
| Flywheel energy | \( E = \frac{1}{2}I\omega^2 \) |
| Fluctuation of speed | \( C_s = \frac{\omega_{max} – \omega_{min}}{\omega_{mean}} \) |
| Belt power | \( P = (T_1 – T_2)v \) |
| Gear ratio | \( N_1/N_2 = T_2/T_1 \) |
| Module | \( m = d/T \) |
| Circular pitch | \( p = \pi m \) |
| Governor height | \( h \approx 895/N^2 \) m (Watt governor) |
| Riveted joint efficiency | \( \eta = \frac{\text{Joint strength}}{\text{Solid plate strength}} \times 100\% \) |
| Collar friction torque | \( T = \mu W R_m \) |
🚀 1-Minute Revision
- Simple machine → force multiplication/direction change.
- Four-bar → 4 links; Grashof: \( s+l \leq p+q \).
- Flywheel → cyclic energy fluctuation control.
- Governor → mean speed control.
- Flat belt → long-distance transmission.
- V-belt → wedge action + high grip.
- Plate clutch → friction plates.
- Conical clutch → conical friction surfaces.
- Gear → positive drive; no slip.
- Involute → most common gear profile.
- Governor → centrifugal-force principle.
- Riveted joint → permanent joint; tearing/shearing/crushing are major failures.
- Cam → prescribed follower motion.
- Bearing → shaft support + friction reduction.
- Collar/Pivot → axial-load friction.
