(Chapter – 1) Theory of Machines and Machine Design: – Concept of simple machine, Four bar linkage and link motion, Flywheels and fluctuation of energy, Power transmission by belts- V- belt and Flat belts, Clutches- Plate and Conical clutch, Gears- Types of Gears, gear profile and gear ratio calculation, Governors- Principles and classification , Riveted joint, Cams, Bearings, Friction in collars and pivots.


Simple Machine – Basic Concept

  • Machine: ऐसी व्यवस्था जो input energy को उपयोगी mechanical work में बदलती/प्रेषित करती है।
  • Simple machine: कम parts वाली मशीन जो force को multiply या direction बदलती है।
  • मुख्य simple machines: Lever, Pulley, Wheel & Axle, Inclined Plane, Wedge, Screw.
  • Mechanical Advantage (MA) = Load / Effort
  • Velocity Ratio (VR) = Distance moved by effort / Distance moved by load
  • Efficiency (\( \eta \)) = MA / VR × 100%
  • Ideal machine में MA = VR और efficiency = 100%.

Four-Bar Linkage

  • चार rigid links का closed kinematic chain.
  • एक link fixed होता है → four-bar mechanism.
  • चार links: Frame, Crank, Coupler, Rocker.
  • Crank: पूर्ण rotation करता है।
  • Rocker: oscillatory/angular motion करता है।
  • Coupler: crank और rocker को जोड़ता है।
  • Grashof criterion: \( s + l \leq p + q \) → कम-से-कम एक link पूर्ण rotation कर सकता है।
  • Double-crank (drag-link): shortest link fixed.
  • Crank-rocker: shortest link के adjacent link को fixed करने पर।
  • Double-rocker: shortest link के opposite link को fixed करने पर।

Link Motion

  • Link: mechanism का rigid/relative-motion member.
  • Kinematic pair: दो links के बीच constrained relative motion.
  • Lower pair: surface contact — turning, sliding, screw आदि।
  • Higher pair: point/line contact — gear, cam आदि।
  • Mechanism: constrained motion देने वाली kinematic chain.
  • Machine: mechanism(s) का ऐसा combination जो useful work करता है।

Flywheel & Fluctuation of Energy

  • Flywheel: cyclically varying torque के कारण अतिरिक्त energy store और release करता है।
  • मुख्य उद्देश्य: speed fluctuation कम करना।
  • Flywheel mean speed को नियंत्रित नहीं करता।
  • Stored kinetic energy: \( E = \frac{1}{2}I\omega^2 \)
  • Maximum fluctuation of energy: \( \Delta E = E_{max} – E_{min} \)
  • Coefficient of fluctuation of speed: \( C_s = \frac{\omega_{max} – \omega_{min}}{\omega_{mean}} \)
  • Flywheel: cycle के अंदर energy fluctuation control करता है।
  • Governor: load बदलने पर mean speed control करता है।

Power Transmission by Belts

  • Belts का उपयोग दूर स्थित parallel shafts के बीच power transmission में होता है।
  • मुख्य प्रकार: Flat belt, V-belt.
  • Power transmitted: \( P = (T_1 – T_2)v \)
  • \( T_1 \) = tight-side tension; \( T_2 \) = slack-side tension.
  • Velocity ratio: \( N_1 D_1 \approx N_2 D_2 \) (slip neglected)
Flat Belt V-Belt
Flat rectangular section Trapezoidal section
Long-distance transmission Short/medium-distance transmission
Lower grip Higher grip due to wedge action
Suitable for higher peripheral speed Compact drive
Simple construction Runs in V-groove pulley
  • V-belt में wedge action friction बढ़ाता है।
  • Open belt drive में shafts की rotation same direction होती है।
  • Crossed belt drive में rotation opposite direction होती है।
  • Belt slip और creep से velocity ratio प्रभावित होता है।

Clutches

  • Clutch: driving और driven shafts को smoothly engage/disengage करने वाला device.
  • मुख्य प्रकार: Plate clutch, Cone clutch, Multi-plate clutch, Centrifugal clutch.
  • Clutch में friction के कारण torque transmit होता है।

Plate Clutch

  • एक या अधिक friction plates का उपयोग।
  • Single-plate clutch: सामान्य automotive applications में common.
  • Torque capacity depends on friction coefficient, axial force, mean radius और number of friction surfaces.
  • Uniform pressure: \( T = \frac{n\mu\pi W(R_o^3 – R_i^3)}{3(R_o^2 – R_i^2)} \)
  • Uniform wear: \( T = \frac{n\mu W(R_o + R_i)}{2} \)
  • यहाँ \( n \) = friction surfaces, \( \mu \) = coefficient of friction, \( W \) = axial force.

Conical Clutch

  • Friction surfaces conical होती हैं।
  • Small axial force से relatively high torque transmission possible.
  • Torque: \( T = \frac{\mu W R_m n}{\sin\alpha} \) (idealized relation; convention/application के अनुसार form बदल सकता है)।
  • \( \alpha \) = semi-cone angle.
  • बहुत छोटा cone angle होने पर self-locking tendency बढ़ सकती है।
Plate Clutch Conical Clutch
Flat friction surfaces Conical friction surfaces
Higher axial force may be required Lower axial force for same torque under suitable geometry
Automobiles में widely used Special applications

Gears

  • Gear: toothed element जो positive power transmission करता है।
  • Gear drive में slip नहीं होता।
  • Gear ratio: \( N_1/N_2 = T_2/T_1 = d_2/d_1 \)
  • \( N \) = speed, \( T \) = number of teeth, \( d \) = pitch diameter.
  • Module: \( m = d/T \)
  • Circular pitch: \( p = \pi m \)
  • Angular velocity ratio: \( \omega_1/\omega_2 = T_2/T_1 \)
Gear Application / Feature
Spur Parallel shafts; straight teeth
Helical Parallel/inclined shafts; smooth & quiet
Bevel Intersecting shafts
Worm & Worm Wheel Non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts; high reduction
Rack & Pinion Rotary ↔ linear motion
Internal Gear Teeth on inside of gear

Gear Profile

  • Common tooth profile: Involute profile.
  • Involute is generated by unwinding a taut string from a base circle.
  • Law of gearing: common normal at point of contact must always pass through a fixed pitch point.
  • Important terms: pitch circle, base circle, addendum, dedendum, clearance, backlash, pressure angle.
  • Pressure angle: angle between common normal and common tangent at pitch point.
  • Standard involute pressure angles commonly include 20°.
  • Interference: undesirable contact outside the proper involute portion.

Governors

  • Governor: engine की mean speed को load परिवर्तन के अनुसार automatically regulate करता है।
  • Governor fuel/working-fluid supply को control करता है।
  • मुख्य principle: centrifugal force में परिवर्तन।
Governor Principle / Feature
Watt Gravity-controlled centrifugal governor
Porter Watt governor + central load
Proell Modified Porter type
Hartnell Spring-controlled governor
  • Governor height (Watt): \( h \approx \frac{895}{N^2} \) metres.
  • \( N \) = rpm.
  • Sensitiveness: speed variation के प्रति governor की response measure.
  • Stability: increasing radius के साथ equilibrium speed बढ़े।
  • Isochronism: सभी radii पर same equilibrium speed.
  • Hunting: governor speed का continuous oscillation.

Riveted Joints

  • Riveting एक permanent joining process है।
  • Applications: boilers, tanks, structural plates आदि; modern pressure vessels में welding ने काफी जगह ली है।
  • Types: Lap joint और Butt joint.
  • Riveting arrangements: single-row, double-row, chain, zig-zag.
Failure Meaning
Tearing of plate Plate rivet holes के बीच tear होती है
Shearing of rivet Rivet shear होकर fail होता है
Crushing Plate/rivet bearing surface crush होती है
Edge failure Rivet hole और plate edge के बीच failure
  • Pitch: adjacent rivets के centres के बीच distance.
  • Margin: rivet centre से nearest plate edge तक distance.
  • Efficiency: joint strength / solid plate strength × 100.
  • Design में tearing, shearing और crushing strengths में से critical value check की जाती है।

Cams & Followers

  • Cam: specially shaped rotating/oscillating element जो follower को prescribed motion देता है।
  • Cam-follower एक higher pair है।
  • Follower motion को displacement-time या displacement-angle diagram से represent किया जाता है।
Cam Follower
Radial/plate cam Knife-edge
Cylindrical cam Roller follower
Wedge cam Flat-faced follower
Oscillating cam Spherical-faced follower
  • Follower motion: uniform velocity, SHM, uniform acceleration-retardation, cycloidal.
  • Knife-edge follower में wear अधिक हो सकता है।
  • Roller follower में friction/wear कम होता है।
  • Pressure angle: follower motion direction और common normal के बीच angle.
  • Pressure angle बहुत अधिक होने पर side thrust बढ़ता है।

Bearings

  • Bearing: rotating shaft को support करता है और friction/wear कम करता है।
Type Examples / Feature
Sliding/Journal bearing Sliding contact
Ball bearing Point contact; low friction
Roller bearing Line contact; high radial load capacity
Thrust bearing Axial load
  • Ball bearing: balls द्वारा load transfer.
  • Roller bearing: cylindrical/tapered/spherical rollers.
  • Radial bearing: radial load के लिए।
  • Thrust bearing: axial load के लिए।
  • Bearing selection में load, speed, life, lubrication, temperature महत्वपूर्ण हैं।

Friction in Collars & Pivots

  • Collar: shaft का enlarged portion जो axial load carry करता है।
  • Pivot: shaft का end support जो axial load लेता है।
  • Collar/pivot friction मुख्यतः axial load और frictional contact के कारण होता है।

Uniform Pressure Theory

  • Pressure contact area पर constant माना जाता है।
  • Annular collar के लिए mean radius:
  • \( R_m = \frac{2(R_o^3 – R_i^3)}{3(R_o^2 – R_i^2)} \)
  • Friction torque: \( T = \mu W R_m \)

Uniform Wear Theory

  • Wear condition: \( pR = \) constant
  • इसलिए maximum pressure inner radius पर होता है।
  • Mean radius: \( R_m = \frac{R_o + R_i}{2} \)
  • Friction torque: \( T = \mu W R_m \)

⚡ Quick Formula Revision

Topic Formula
Mechanical Advantage \( MA = \frac{\text{Load}}{\text{Effort}} \)
Efficiency \( \eta = \frac{MA}{VR} \times 100\% \)
Flywheel energy \( E = \frac{1}{2}I\omega^2 \)
Fluctuation of speed \( C_s = \frac{\omega_{max} – \omega_{min}}{\omega_{mean}} \)
Belt power \( P = (T_1 – T_2)v \)
Gear ratio \( N_1/N_2 = T_2/T_1 \)
Module \( m = d/T \)
Circular pitch \( p = \pi m \)
Governor height \( h \approx 895/N^2 \) m (Watt governor)
Riveted joint efficiency \( \eta = \frac{\text{Joint strength}}{\text{Solid plate strength}} \times 100\% \)
Collar friction torque \( T = \mu W R_m \)

🚀 1-Minute Revision

  • Simple machine → force multiplication/direction change.
  • Four-bar → 4 links; Grashof: \( s+l \leq p+q \).
  • Flywheel → cyclic energy fluctuation control.
  • Governor → mean speed control.
  • Flat belt → long-distance transmission.
  • V-belt → wedge action + high grip.
  • Plate clutch → friction plates.
  • Conical clutch → conical friction surfaces.
  • Gear → positive drive; no slip.
  • Involute → most common gear profile.
  • Governor → centrifugal-force principle.
  • Riveted joint → permanent joint; tearing/shearing/crushing are major failures.
  • Cam → prescribed follower motion.
  • Bearing → shaft support + friction reduction.
  • Collar/Pivot → axial-load friction.
Chapter – 1 : JSSC JE Mechanical Notes